Does the story have
an introduction or does it start in medias res?
What are the
actions or events of the narrative?
Are the episodes in
chronological order? If not, why not?
Are any later
incidents foreshadowed early in the story?
Are flashbacks used
to fill in past events? If so, why?
What elements
create suspense in the plot?
Where is the climax
pop up (most intense action or point of highest emotional interest)?
Do events seem
realistic or unrealistic (romantic or fantastic)?
Are conflicts
resolved at the end of the story?
Is there a surprise
ending?
Character
Facts: Name, age,
gender, appearance, family situation
Social background:
Education, job, language
Does the character
develop (change or learn something) in the story? How? Why?
Aspects of
character: Intellectual abilities, attitudes towards life, attitudes towards
other people, moral ideas, temperament
How is the
character presented? Directly through the narrator? Indirectly through behavior,
thoughts or speech?
What is the
author's attitude to the character? Are we meant to sympathize with the
character or criticize him/ her?
Setting
Where: Geographical
location, social environment, nature
When: Historical
period, the season of the year, the time of the day, time span, flashbacks
Does the setting
create a specific atmosphere?
Does the setting
reveal anything about the feelings of the characters or the narrator(s)?
Does the place of
action remain the same, or is there more than one physical setting?
Is the setting
described in detail or hinted at?
Narrator/ Point of
View
Is it a first
person narrator or a third person narrator?
Is the narrator
reliable or unreliable?
Is the narrator
omniscient?
Is the narrator´s
point of view limited or unlimited?
Does the narrator
comment on the action/ the characters, or is he neutral?
Images and Symbols
Are there words in
the text that seem to mean more than we usually expect them to mean, i.e. are
there any symbols?
What does the
symbol represent?
What is the writer
trying to make us see or understand?
Does the writer use
metaphors or similes? If yes, to what effect?
How would you
describe the choice of words and their arrangement (the style) in this work?
Does the author call attention to the way he or she uses words, or is the style
inconspicuous?
What are the
various connotations (shades of meaning, or emotional suggestions) of key words
in this work?
If dialect or
colloquial speech is used, what is its effect? Is the level of language
appropriate for the speaker or characters in the work?
Are there
statements or actions in this work that are presented ironically (that is,
there is a discrepancy between appearance and reality, or between what is said
and what is intended)?
Is the style
consistent throughout the work or does it shift to a different style (more
formal or less formal, for example)?
Is the style
suitable for the subject and theme of the work?
Does it contribute to the meaning of the whole or hinder the reader's
understanding?
Theme
What is the central
idea of the text?
What attitude to
life is expressed in the story?
Are there symbols,
images, and descriptive details in the text that suggest the theme(s)?
Does the title of
the story indicate anything about the theme(s)?
Title
What is the link
between the title, the characters, and the cause of events?
Does the title
create expectations about the text?
To make your title interesting, here are some tips:
Use numbers
Use interesting adjective such as Effortless, Painstaking, Fun, Free, Incredible, Essential, Absolute, and Strange
Use a unique rationale such as Reasons, Principles, Facts, Lessons, Ideas, Ways, Secrets, and Tricks
Use what, why, how, when, who, or where
Make an audacious promise
Example:
Topic: Shopping for Clothes Title with How: How To Shop for Clothes Title with Number: 6 Tips to Shop for Clothes Title with Adjectives: 6 Easy Tips To Shop for Fashionable Clothes Title with promise: 6 Easy Tips To Shop for Fashionable Clothes without Breaking the Bank
Introduction
The introduction is not your opening.
It is also not your bio.
The introduction should be made by you, but should be delivered by the master of ceremonies.
It should say something briefly about you and your speech.
The introduction should answer three questions:
Why this subject?
Why this speaker?
Why now?
Also consider:
Who is your audience?
Why are they attending?
What is their investment to attend?
What do they expect to learn from your talk?
What do they already know about you and the topic you'll be speaking on?
It is much better to have someone else state your professional credentials and present evidence of legitimacy or credibility.
This not the time to be modest about your accomplishments.
Make it clear to the Master of Ceremonies that you will bring or, better yet, send ahead of time your introduction.
Your introduction should be tailored to the audience, never use a previous introdcution without a little revising.
A good introduction is often delivered as if the introducer wrote it.
Always bring an extra copy of your introduction.
The last sentence should build the audience's excitement.
Opening
The opening has two functions: (1) to capture the audiences attention and (2) to inform the audience what you will talking about.
Here are some tips that you can use to grab your audience's attention:
Open with a question
Present a famous quote
Start with a story or anecdote
Present a special talent
Use a visual
Make a declarative statement or alarming statistic
Paint a word picture
Suspense/Surprise
Use something timely in your opening
Do something unusual
Use Vivid language
Don't start immediately and smile before speaking.
Content
The content of your speech must be able to:
Educate
Entertain
Explain
The following are some tips when writing the content of your speech:
Keep it simple
Discard extraneous phrases, jargon and everything else that confuses
Ask yourself, "So what?" "What has that got to do with me?"
Keep in mind
Good writing in specific writing
Good speaking contains specifics
Language
Avoid words that put down someone's ethnicity, religion, physical attributes, or sexual orientation
Use proper English
To make sure that what you have included in your content is necessary, you can answer the following question:
When my audience reflects on my presentation, what will they remember?
__________________________
__________________________
__________________________
Make sure that your answers match your content. This activity is also helpful when you are still writing the content of your speech.
Conclusion
The final part of a speech is the conclusion.
The conclusion has two elements: the summary and the closing.
If there is a question and answer session, this must be done before the conclusion.
Your closing can take several forms, and should always be relevant to your talk.
As the old saying tells us, "one picture is worth a thousand words."
People find a speaker’s message more interesting, grasp it more easily, and
retain it longer when it is presented visually as well as verbally. Save time –
use visuals! Show the audience with images; don’t just tell them with words.
Effective Visuals: The
images we show the audience.
Explaining Visuals: The
words we use to guide the audience through the visuals
Why Is the Visual Message Important?
The visual message is important because even if you stumble over
sentences, mispronounce words, or get the numbers wrong, the audience will
still understand.
Visual aids offer several advantages. The primary advantage is clarity.
If you are describing a certain object, you can make your message clearer by showing
the object or some representation of it.
Another advantage of visual aids is interest. The interest generated by
visual images is so strong that visual images are now routinely used in many areas,
not just in speech-making. A generation or so ago, most college textbooks were
rather dry—page after page of words.
Still another advantage of visual aids is retention. Visual images
often stay with us longer than verbal ones.
In fact, when used well, visual aids can enhance almost every aspect of
a speech. One study showed that an average speaker who uses visual aids will
come across as better prepared, more credible, and more professional than a
dynamic speaker who does not use visual aids.
What are the Different Kinds of Visual Aids?
Objects
Models - is an
object, usually built to scale, that represents another object in detail.
Photographs
Drawings
Graphs - are a good way to simplify and clarify statistics. Audiences often have trouble
grasping a complex series of numbers. The most common type is the line graph. A
line graph uses one or more lines to show changes in statistics over time or
space. The pie graph is best suited for illustrating simple distribution
patterns. The bar graph is a particularly good way to show comparisons between
two or more items.
Charts -
are visual aid that summarizes a large block of information, usually in list
form.
Slides and videotapes
Computer-Generated
Graphic - a
diagram, chart graph, or the like created with the aid of a computer.
Transparencies - are visual aids drawn, written, or printed on a sheet of clear acetate and
shown with an overhead projector.
Multimedia
Presentations - are speeches that use computer software to combine several kinds
of visual and/or audio aids in the same presentation.
The Speaker - sometimes
you can use your own body as a visual aid—by showing how to perform sign
language for the deaf, by demonstrating the skills of modern dance, by doing a
magic tricks, and so forth
How to Prepare and Use Visual Aids?
Whether you are creating visual aids by hand or designing them on a
computer, there are six basic guidelines you should follow to make your aids
clear and visually appealing.
Prepare your visual
aids in advance.
Keep visual aids
simple.
Make sure visual aids
are large enough.
Avoid using
chalkboards.
Display visual aids
where the audience can see them.
Avoid handouts - once
visual aids get into the hands of your listeners, you are in trouble. At least
three people will be paying more attention to the aid than you—the person who
had just had it, the person who has it now, and the person waiting to get the
next one. By the time the visual aid moves on, all three may have lost track of
what you are saying.
Display visual aids
only when discussing them.
Talk to your audience,
not to your visual aid.
Explain visual aids
clearly and concisely.
Practice with your
visual aid.
How to Create Effective Slides?
Many speakers now employ presentation software for their visual aid. When using such programs, you need to think through your presentation outline carefully before designing your visuals.
1. Use slide text to emphasize key points, not to convey your entire message.
Limit each slide to one thought, concept, or idea
Limit the content of each slide to 20 or 25 words—with no more than five or six lines of text containing about 3 or 4 words per line
Avoid full sentences or blocks of text
Phrase items in parallel form to simplify reading
Use the active voice
Avoid long sequences of text-only slides; mix in visuals to hold viewer attention
2. When designing slides take note of these design principles: consistency, contrast, balance, emphasis, convention, and simplicity.
Color
The use of color in visuals can account for 60% of an audience's acceptance or rejection of an idea.
Background
The simpler and quieter the background is the better.
Foreground
The foreground contains the text and graphic elements. Photos or artwork in the foreground can either be decorative or functional. For decorative elements, use them sparingly.
Fonts
Choose fonts that are simple and are simply to read. Choose font sizes that are easy to read from anywhere from the room. Use 24-36 font size, and if possible test your font size in the venue if it is large enough.
Ø
*Design inconsistencies confuse and annoy audiences; don’t change colors and other design elements randomly throughout your presentation.
3. Today’s presentation software offers many options; however, use these elements with care and make sure they support your message.
Functional animation involves motion that is directly related to your message, such as a highlight arrow that moves around the screen to emphasize specific points in a technical diagram. In contrast decorative animation, such as having a block of text cartwheel in form off screen does not have any communication value and can easily distract audiences.
Choose subtle slide transitions that ease the eye from one slide to the next.
Hyperlinks and action buttons let you build flexibility into your presentations. A hyperlink instructions your presentation software to jump to another slide in your presentation, to a website, or to another program entirely. Hyperlinks can also be assigned to preprogrammed actions know as action buttons.
Components of Your Presentation
Title slide – you can make a good first impression with one or two title slide, the equivalent of a report’s cover and title page
Agenda and program details – these slides communicate the agenda for your presentation and any additional information the audience might need
Navigation slides – these are necessary for longer presentations. Navigation slides tell your audience where you are going and where you’ve been. As you complete each section, repeat the agenda slide but indicate which material has been covered and which section are you about to begin.
The Pendulum - swaying from side to side is poor speech posture because it communicates that you are also swaying back and forth between ideas in your mind.
The Leaning Tower of Pisa - leaning to one side is poor speech posture because it is too relaxed, and makes the audience feel that you aren’t serious about your speech.
The Stargazer - Looking up the ceiling while a speech is poor eye contact because it shows that you aren’t well prepared and don’t know what to say.
The Surfer - Moving your shoulders and upper body around as you speak is poor speech posture. It makes the audience feel that you are not calm and confident about your message.
The Hula Dancer - swinging your hips back and for and from side to side is poor speech posture because it shows that you are nervous and not comfortable with your message.
Washing Your Hands - rubbing your hands together as if you were washing them or playing with something in your hands is poor speech posture because it shows that you are nervous.
The Birdwatcher - looking out the window or staring at the back of the room is poor eye contact for a speech because it makes the audience feel that you are not interested in them.
The Soldier - standing stiffly at attention with your feet together and your hands at your sides is poor speech posture because it makes you look nervous and uncomfortable in your role as speaker.
Making a good first impression is important. Even before you say your first word, your posture and eye contact should show the audience that you are calm, well-prepared, confident and ready. If you begin with good posture and good eye contact, it will be easy for you to maintain a positive body language throughout your speech.
Posture and Eye Contact Checklist
Set your feet. Place your feet shoulder-width apart. Balance your weight evenly on both feet. This posture is stable and shows self-control and confidence. This is a firm foundation to build a speech upon.
Set your hands. Hold your hands together keep them about waist high in front of you. This posture focuses attention on your upper body and face and is an easy position to gesture from.
Eye contact. Look at your audience for three seconds before you begin. Look at several people in the audience. Communication begins with the audience begins when you make eye contact. The three-second wait lets you collect your thoughts before you begin.
Presentation voice. Take a deep breath. Begin speaking in a voice louder and lower than usual conversation voice. Speaking loudly release nervous energy and speaking in lower voice makes you sound confident.
A popular expression states that
the best leaders are the best followers. Therefore if you want to become a good
speaker you must be, first, a good listener. So what makes a good listener?
Many students hear their teacher
giving a lecture but are not listening to a single word their teacher is
saying. Notice the big difference between the word “hearing” and “listening.”
Hearing is a physiological process wherein the ear receives sounds while
listening is a conscious mental act of interpreting the sounds for a meaning or
message. Hearing something means you are being passive in the communication
process, but when you listen you take an active role, enabling you to give
accurate feedback. Now the same can be said about seeing and watching. You can
see that the TV is on, but you are not watching the TV show; or you can see
that there is a person on stage, but you are not watching the speaker. The
point here is that in order for you to assess a speaker effectively, you need
to listen, simple as that. And when you know what worked and what didn’t, you
can apply what you’ve learned when it’s your time to speak.
The Different Components of a Speech
What to Say?
The first major component of your
speech is your content; this refers to what you are mentioning in your speech.
Your content will depend on your purpose. If your purpose is to inform, then
the contents of your speech must be truthful, valid, and informative. If your
purpose is to persuade, then the contents of your speech must ethical, logical,
and thought provoking.
The content is the soul of your
speech. This means that no amount of theatrics or presentation skills will make
a poorly-written speech into a great one. Hence, it is essential to give
yourself the time to go through the proper writing process so that you can make
a coherent, concise, and complete speech.
How to Say It?
Delivery is the second component
of your speech. It encompasses the methods, techniques, and objects you employ
as speaker to help you effectively convey the contents of your speech to your
audience. If the content of the speech is the soul, the delivery is the body.
The delivery is what the audience sees and hears. Therefore, an audience will
not be able to appreciate a speech, though well-written, when badly delivered.
What Is a Good Delivery?
The best public speakers strike a
fine balance between being methodical and being natural. Planning every move or
gesture will make you look robotic and insincere to the audience. On the other
hand, hardly practicing any of your moves or gestures will make you look
unprepared.
Unfortunately, speech delivery is
not a science; it is more of an art. There is no set of rules that will work
for everyone and in every situation. What you will be learning about delivery
will not be enough to make you an effective public speaker. In other words, no
amount of studying and memorizing the techniques from public speaking books or courses can substitute for experience.
Delivery is composed of three
parts: speaking method, the speaker’s voice, and nonverbal communication.
The Different Methods Delivery
Reading a Manuscript
Video 1: Tips on effective manuscript reading (courtesy of DrexelSpeechClass, Youtube)
This method means that you will
be bringing a complete copy of your speech for you to read to your audience.
Although some would say that this method is the easiest since memorization is
not required, it does have some drawbacks. Speakers who use this method may end
up misreading words, pausing in the wrong parts, speaking in a monotone,
forgetting to glance at the audience, or getting lost in text. In short, some
speakers who read a manuscript end up just merely reading to their audience and
not speaking to them. In other words, using this method would still require for you to practice delivering the speech.
Reciting from Memory
This method is no longer popular
especially with students as it has proven to be their public speaking waterloo.
How many times have you seen a student orating a melodramatic piece about
asking for a piece of bread only to stop midway because he or she could no
longer recall the next line?
Many speakers do not consider
this method practicable. Reciting from memory will likely impress your
audience, but if you have not memorized your speech well enough, you will end
up using all your concentration on trying to remember the words. Another
disadvantage is that the method makes it hard for you to ad lib. The term,
short for ad libitum (at one’s pleasure), is used commonly in drama and it
means to improvise. In public speaking, ad libbing gives the speaker the
freedom to add something or to make some changes to his or her speech during delivery. To ad lib does not necessarily mean extra content. Simple things like pausing longer or even skipping some sections of your speech are good examples of ad lib.
Video 2: Tips for memorizing a speech (courtesy of SmartMemoryPower, Youtube)
Speaking Impromptu
This method means delivering a
speech with little or no preparation. If you consider impromptu speaking a
nightmare then you are not alone. Many avoid such a situation;
sadly, impromptu speaking is a part of modern life you cannot avoid.
When faced with the challenge of
speaking impromptu, the first thing you need to do is to manage your nerves.
Remind yourself that the audience is your friend. They know how difficult it is
to speak in impromptu, and no one will expect a perfectly-organized and
delivered speech. Once you start to speak, maintain eye contact with your
audience and concentrate on controlling the pace of your speaking.Help your audience (and yourself) to keep
track of your ideas by using expressions such as “my first point is . . .second
. . . in conclusion . . .”Stating your
points clearly and concisely helps you to come across as organized and
confident.
Video 3: Tips for effective impromptu speaking (courtesy of Toastmasters, Youtube)
Speaking Extemporaneously
In this method, the speaker uses
a set of notes or an outline to serve as a guide for the speech. Speaking
extemporaneously is the preferred method by many public speakers because the
speaker is not required to memorize the speech at the same time he or she is
not dependent on a copy of the speech. The set of notes or outline helps the
speaker to remember what next to say or organizes his or her thoughts.
Spontaneity is another advantage of the method as the exact wording of the
speech is chosen at the moment of delivery.
Video 4: Tips for extemporaneous speaking (courtesy of dalemercer, Youtube)
What is the Speaker’s Voice?
Video 5: Homeless man with golden
voice gets another second chance (courtesy of Associated Press, YouTube)
Alas not everybody is gifted with
a golden voice. Nonetheless you can learn to control your voice so that it does
not become a distraction, preventing your audience from getting your message.
The following are the aspects of voice you should learn to control:
1.Volume – the loudness or softness of the
speaker’s voice.
2. Pitch – highness or
lowness of the speaker’s voice.
3. Rate – refers to the
speed at which a person speaks.
4. Pauses – a
momentary break in the vocal delivery of a speech.
5. Vocal Variety – is the changes in
a speaker’s rate, pitch, and volume.
6. Pronunciation – is the
accepted standard of sound and rhythm for words in a given language.
7. Articulation – is the physical
production of particular speech sounds.
Video 6: Different types of tone (Empowernet International, Youtube)
What is Nonverbal Communication?
Nonverbal communication is
communication that occurs as a result of appearance, posture, gesture, eye
contact, facial expressions, and other non-linguistic factors. Here are the
major aspects of nonverbal communication that will affect the outcome of your
speeches.
Personal Appearance
“Don’t judge a book by its
cover;” however, you can definitely judge a speaker by his or her appearance.
Personal appearance does not refer to the facial features or physical built of
the speaker. Not everyone is as genetically gifted as Brazilian supermodels do.
Personal appearance refers to the speaker’s clothes and grooming. Although a
strong delivery can easily overcome poor fashion choices or a lack of grooming,
dressing and grooming appropriately to the occasion gives a favorable first
impression, making the audience more receptive to your message.
Bodily Action
The best speakers learn to
control mannerisms that can be distracting for the audience. This is the reason
why you should always practice first in front of a video camera or in front of
your friends. With the video recording or with your friends' feedback, you can
identify movements (or the lack of) you unconsciously do that are
potentially distracting. You should also be aware of the pace of your
movements; too slow can make your speech boring, and too fast can create an
impression that you are nervous.
Gestures
Video 7: Hand gestures that can be insulting in other countries (courtesy of PimsleurApproach, Youtube)
Gestures are motions of a
speaker’s hands or arms during a speech. The primary rule for gestures is the
same for bodily action; it should not be distracting. They should appear
natural and spontaneous, help clarify or reinforce your ideas, and be suited to
the audience and occasion.
Eye Contact
Eye
contact is the direct visual contact with the eyes of another person. Looking
at your audience is an easy way of establishing credibility. Having eye contact
with your listeners sends a message that you are sincere. However eye contact is not enough; how you look at them is also
important. A blank, fierce, or bewildered stare will not translate well with
the audience. Also it is important not to gaze at only one section of the
audience, as you will be alienating the rest.
Video 7: Tips on eye contact (courtesy of Emporwernet, Youtube)
